MICROECONOMIC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MICROECONOMIC - Essay Example For the person who smokes cigarettes, it is a good commodity. Hence, the Price Consumption curve would be downward sloping one as in the figure above. But the slope will be a flat one because although the price goes up, the consumption does not get reduced at the same rate. Answer 2 The difference between a young smoker and an adult smoker is that the former can reduce the level of smoking as it is not a habitual activity for him hence cigarettes will be treated as a normal good for him. So when the price of the cigarette increases the young consumer can reduce the consumption. Hence the demand curve would be an elastic one (Gottheil, 2013, p.101). On the other hand, for an adult smoker cigarette consumption would not vary with changes in the prices because it would be an addiction for him and hence even if the price is high he would not be able to reduce the consumption of cigarettes. The demand for cigarettes for an adult would be inelastic. In the above figure, the producers of ci garettes face a perfectly inelastic demand curve from the adult smokers but a relatively more elastic demand curve from the young smokers. Now if the price of Cigarette increases the adult smokers will continue to buy the amount Qa but the young ones would adjust their consumption as per the prices. Since the quantity demanded of cigarette decreases for the young smokers, the demand for other good increases. But this does not happen in case of the adult smokers. Whatever be the prices of the cigarettes, they will continue consumption of the same amount .Hence the demand for other goods will remain constant or increase marginally. The above graph applies for the young smokers whose demand fluctuates with the changes in the prices. The initial demand for cigarettes is Q1 and the price is P1. The initial demand curve for other goods was D1. Now due to increase in the prices, the new quantity demanded would be less amount i.e. Q2. Thus the demand for other goods increases to D2. This ch ange does not happen for an adult smoker. He does not change the quantity and is ready to pay the price differential. Thus the demand curve for other goods remains constant. Answer 3 Though tobacco as an addictive consumption cannot be explained by the general economics laws of demand and supply, it has to be kept in mind that there are social costs as well as time costs associated with the continuous use of tobacco. Economic Research has provided evidence of the fact that the demand for cigarettes does decrease with an increase in the prices of cigarettes (McGowan, 1995, p.113). The income levels of the individual smoker also have an effect on the demand for cigarettes. Studies across the world has shown that the demand due to an increase in the prices of cigarettes have fluctuated more in the underdeveloped countries than in the developed countries. This proves that the people of these countries are more price sensitive than their developed counterparts. But addiction of cigarette happens irrespective of the level of income hence an increase in the tax rate may appear to be regressive because it may affect the poorer segment of the population. The consumption habits of the past also influence the consumption habits of the future. Hence the people who have a record of consuming cigarettes more in the past tend to consume even more in the future. Thus if anti

Read an article and respond to the prompt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Read an article and respond to the prompt - Essay Example Additionally, individuals with low economic status worked for more hours as compared to individuals with a higher economic status. In 1965, individuals with a college education and a high level of income spent more hours relaxing as compared to individuals with only a high school education. This trend changed towards the end of the twentieth century. According to the Economist "By 2005, the college-educated had eight hours less of it a week than the high-school grads". This postulation is supported by a methodical investigation conducted by the American Time Use Survey that proved that individuals with atleast college education in the US spend an additional two hours daily in their work stations as compared to those with high school education. This change has been contributed by a number of reasons. Educated individuals have been earning more today as compared to what they earned three decades ago. Therefore, these individuals tend to lose more money when vacationing as compared to what they could lose in the twentieth century. In todays job market, income is dependent on input in terms of working hours. Through my observation of others, it is worth positing that the advancement of technology has led to significant changes in peoples experiences of leisure. Enjoying oneself today does not necessarily mean going for a vacation anymore. People prefer watching a movie at home with friends and family during weekends rather than vacationing far away from home. In my opinion, this explanation of the shift is valid. Well learned individuals tend to have a higher level of income. Subsequently, these individuals are also in management positions and hence they are given supervisory roles in organizations. This means that they must spend extra hours in the office going through all reports from every department as they are accountable for every activity within organizations. This translates to spending less time relaxing. Conditions in the

Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL) Origin and Features

Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL) Origin and Features Leandri Venteru Mid- African Rift: Is there a geographical/spatial control on the nature of volcanism in Cameroon? Essay Volcanism in Cameroon occurs mainly on the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), with the largest and most active volcano being Mount Cameroon (Fitton, 1980). The CVL, representing alkaline volcanoes, shows an easy recognisable Y-shape, with volcanic centres in both the oceanic and continental sectors of the African plate (Fitton Dunlop, 1985). Consensus regarding the driving forces of these volcanoes has yet to be reached. However, a wide variety of theories and hypotheses addressing the origin and nature of the CVL have been published over the last few decades. The CVL is a 1600km long magmatic sequence, stretching from Pagalu Island in the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) to Lank Chad on the main land of Cameroon on the western African continent (Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno Demaiffe, 2007). Geographically the CVL is situated almost parallel to the Benue Trough, and follows the length of the Ngaoundà ©rà © Fault (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997). The northern limb of the CVL overlaps with the Chad rift, which marks the northern rift of the Benue Trough (Fitton, 1980). Although volcanism is still active along the CVL is it not a neogene feature and has been active since the beginning of the Tertiary period. The rocks from the CVL are classified as mainly alkaline, intermediate and felsic. The felsic and basaltic lavas increase inlands towards the branches of the CVL in a volumetric ratio (Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno Demaiffe, 2007). One of Africa’s largest volcanoes, Mount Cameroon, is a volcanic horst, with an approximate height of 4075m. T he volcano of Mount Cameroon is the most active volcano on the CVL. The latest eruption of Mount Cameroon was in the year 2000 (Herrero-Bervera et al. 2004). Scientists tried various methods over the years in an attempt to clarify the origin and dynamics of the CVL. During the 1980’s Fitton (1980) proposed a simple model to explain the geological features of the CVL. Fitton (1980) noted that although there is no evidence for rift faulting there are signs of regional uplift of the basin. The continental sector of the CVL is characterized by strato-volcanoes (Mount Cameroon), central volcanic massifs and even calderas in some areas. Collapsed plains filled by sediments, single magnetic volcanoes and flood basalts ( Ngaoundà ©rà © Plateau) are also prominent on the continental sector (Nkouathio et al. 2008). The volcanism is not influenced by fractures, which existed before the volcanism in the basement (Fitton, 1980). The origin of the CVL is explained by hand of the striking relationship between the CVL and the Benue Trough features. Fitton (1980) suggested that the CVL and the Benue Trough are superimposed by rotating one feature by 7 ° in relation to the other, about an axis. The axis is described to run with a north eastern strike into the country of Sudan. The reason for the relative rotation of the CVL and the Benue Trough is speculated to be as a result of the clockwise rotation of Africa (ca. 80Ma – 65Ma) (Fitton, 1980). This clockwise rotation might provide evidence for three features. Firstly, on the origin, the size and Y-shaped geometry of the CVL, secondly the rotation might support reason for the absence of recent volcanism in the Benue Trough. Thirdly, the rotational theory might provide evidence for the folding of the Benue Trough sediments. There were some speculations that the volcanism presently active in the CVL was once active in the Benue Trough. If the volcanic line had migrated from the Benue Though to its current position a systematic migration of a hot-spot is implied. Ngako et al. (2006) used remote sensing data as proposed by Moreau et al. (1987) to suggest that the relati onship between stress regimes and intraplate alkaline magmatism in the CVL is controlled by lithospheric structures. Ubangoh et al. (2005) argued that the presence of numerous recent volcanic cones and craters along the CVL is an indication of a strong geothermal gradient beneath the volcanic line, although there are no data that proves an increased supply of heat. By using a geochemical study on the basaltic rocks of the CVL and a K-Ar dating programme, Fitton and Dunlop (1985) searched for evidence to prove a systematic migration of the CVL volcanoes. Since the CVL is situated in such a unique geological setting, Fitton and Dunlop (1985) reasoned that they can determine the source of the CVL magmas by comparing the isotopic ratios of alkali basalts on the oceanic sector with the isotopic data of the alkali basalts on the continental sector of the volcanic line. Fitton and Dunlop have found that both the major element compositions as well as the isotopic ratios are indistinguishable when comparing the oceanic and continental sectors. What the K-Ar data did prove was that multiple volcanoes were ac tive along the line in more or less the same time period. When Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997) compared the ages of the oceanic sector volcanoes, they found that there is a consistency between the rotation of the Cretaceous African plate (Fitton, 1980) and the ages of the earlier exposed rocks on the islands. The ages of the early exposed lavas decrease from the continental side towards the ocean, placing Principe at 31Ma and Pagalu at 4.8Ma. The systematic age decrease of the islands support the mantle plume model for the oceanic sector of the CVL, but does not include the continental sector. Other causes of volcanism, such as rift faulting and pre-existing basement fractures were at first discarded due to failure to collect supportive evidence. The volcanoes on the ocean floor showed no changes due to the faults they passes through, thus one can assume that the source of these volcanoes are from mantle processes and is not affected by structures occurring in the crust (Fitton, 1980).Research based on the age and chemistry of the CVL basalts, indicated that the CVL is a young rift associated with the Benue Trough rather than a hot-spot trail. The depth at which a volcano is tapping its magma can be determined by the radioactive decay of helium isotopes in crustal rock (Aka, et al. 2003). Helium serves as a geochemical tracer that could be used to investigate the alteration of magma over a period of time. It is generally accepted that ocean island basalts (OIB) show a wide range of 3He/4He (Zindler Hart, 1986) and that 3He/4He ratios from mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) are uniform (Graham et al. 1992a). The 3He/4He ratio of the CVL ranges from 3.05Ra to 8.31Ra. Hotspots in general have much higher 3He/4He ratios (Hilton et al. 1999). Aka et al. (2003) was the first to identify that the distribution of the 3He/4He ratios on the CVL could be due to spatial control, and suggested that the helium isotopic distribution an essential characteristic of the CVL is. These findings are argued as prove that the CVL volcanoes doesn’t tap their material directly from hotspots. Aka et al. (2003) is further backed up by work Fitto n and Dunlop (1985) did on K-Ar dating and the consistency to the Pb-isotope model proposed by Halliday et al. (1990).The above mentioned data and the long-lasting volcanism of the CVL volcanoes supports the conclusion reached by Fitton and Dunlop (1985) that the magma driving the volcanoes on the continental sector could not originate from a deep mantle source. Therefore the CVL shows no evidence of a mantle plume in the continental sector, but rather signatures convection of the upper mantle (Fitton Dunlop, 1985). 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb isotope ratios showed a slight decrease to either sides of the volcanic line from the centred volcano, Mt. Cameroon, which lies on the lithospheric continental-oceanic boundary (COB) (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997). Basalts from the COB volcanoes, such as Mount Cameroon and Mount Etinde are more radiogenic with 206Pb/204Pb ratios of approximately 20.52 and 208Pb/204Pb ratios of 40.34 (Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno Demaiffe, 2007). The Pb ratios of the COB volcanoes show a strong contrast to the lower radiogenic ratios of the island volcanoes. Basalts from the island located far south from the COB, Pagalu Island, have the lowest 206Pb/204Pb ratio of 19.01 and a 208Pb/204Pb ratio of 38.83. The Pb isotope data proves that there occurred no consistent major change in the magma over a period of time. The Nd and Sr isotopes of the basalts from both the continental and oceanic regions are similar in composition. The resemblance of the geochemical and isotopic data be tween oceanic and continental basalts provide evidence that the source and composition of the magma was not influenced by the continental crust, and therefore, the magma does not originate from the lithosphere (Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno Demaiffe, 2007). The magma, as speculated by Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997), originate from a sub-lithospheric source, because of the similar compositions of the oceanic and continental magmas. Nkouathio et al. (2008) argued that since the lavas of the entire CVL have a shallow asthensopheric mantle source a depleted MORB mantle and a metasomatosed mantle, the alkaline lavas are consistent with the asthensopheric upwelling of a hot-spot. Halliday et al. (1990) argued that the isotopic decreases could infer re-melting of an enriched mantle plume located beneath the COB. Halliday further argues that the plume possibly shifted (from its position underneath the Benue Trough) to its current location during the continental breakup between the African an d South American plates as well as the rotation of the cooler lithosphere relative to the asthenosphere (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997). Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997) made it clear that although the isotopic data supports the mantle plume theory, the mantle plume is only a part of the explanation of a more complex volcanic setting. Detailed isotopic data demonstrated that many theories proposed in the past were too inconsistent to explain the origin of the CVL. The data includes many classical theories, however only three will be mentioned. Firstly, the reactivation of the Ngaoundere fault which in turn caused the volcanism on the CVL (Moreau et al. 1987). A second classical theory involves membrane tectonics which produced the extensional CVL feature (Freeth, 1979). Thirdly, it is suggested that the various active volcanic centres are inconsistent with the ‘textbook’ model of hotspots (Fitton Dunlop, 1985), (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997).Keeping the above mentioned theories in mind, Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997) used a ‘technique of inductively coupled plasma magnetic sector multiple collector mass spectrometry’ (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997 pp 111)to acquire new data. From the data Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997) concluded that the CVL does not show a mentionable dif ference in Hf and Nd isotopic compositions in neither the continental margin nor in the oceanic sectors. However, a very significant difference in Pb and Sr isotopic compositions were detected (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997). The consistent Hf and Nd isotopic compositions in the ocean island basalts (OIB) are indicative of a similar behaviour of the Sm/Nd and Lu/Hf parent-daughter ratios in the source of the OIB (Ballentine, Lee Halliday, 1997). Further, the continental sector shows a similar Hf-isotopic make-up than the oceanic sector. Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997), argued that the distinct variability in the Pb isotopic composition can be explained by the recycling of the oceanic crust, since Pb and Sr have increased mobility in the oceanic lithosphere. Kamgang et al. (2008) used a more localized approach, by investigating the geochemical isotopic data of the Bamenda Mountains in Cameroon. Since the previous isotopic studies performed by Ballentine, Lee and Halliday (1997), focussed on the entire CVL, Kamgang et al. (2008) proposed a ‘zoomed in’ investigation by focussing on one area of the CVL and try to explain the origin of the magma in that area. Kamgang et al. (2008) performed geochemical and geochronological studies of the mafic rocks from the Bamenda Mountains. His aim was to gain a better perspective of the composition of the CVL magma source. K-Ar dating performed on older, crust contaminated, samples of the CVL showed no systematic variation over time. However, insight on the chemical composition of the mantle source of magma is provided by the high Eu, Sr and Ba concentrations (Kamgang et al. 2008). The high concentrations are not a result of crustal contamination, because these concentrations do not correlat e to the Sr and Nd isotopic compostitions or the MgO contents or the La/Nb ratios of the rocks. Kamgang et al. (2008) suggested that these high concentrations rather have to do with the composition of the magma origin. The major element composition shows consistency with fractional crystallization processes. Sr and Nd isotopic values of the Bamenda Mountains coincide with the isotopic data published by Ballentine, Lee and Halliday in 1997. Kamgang et al. (2008) pointed out that the positive correlations observed between the Pb and Nd isotopic ratios and the negative Pb/ Sr isotopic correlation indicate either contamination by the continental crust (Ngounouno, Dà ©ruelle Demaiffe, 2000) or the effect of an enriched lithospheric mantle (Rankenburg, Lassiter Brey, 2005)( Kamgang et al,2008). Structural causes of volcanism have been discarded due to failure to prove structural influences with supportive evidence. There are three main structural units present in the Pan- African basement, namely shear zones, fold zones and thrust zones from which the shear zones indicating lithospheric faults stands out (Ngako et al. 2006).The volcanoes on the ocean floor show no changes due to the faults they passes through, thus one can assume that the source of these volcanoes are from mantle processes and is not affected by structures occurring in the crust (Fitton, 1980). It was also speculated that the CVL is rather a young rift associated with the Benue Trough. Nkouathio et al. (2008) suggested that the CVL is an alternating structure consisting of horsts and grabens. As a large shear zone, the CVL is structurally subdivided by a sequence of faults indicative of an alternating horst and graben system (Nkouathio et al. 2008). Considering other tectonic models, Ngako et al. (2006) suggested that the magmatism of the CVL is a complex interaction of multiple mantle plumes and fractures in the lithosphere. Ngako et al. (2006) further speculate that the complex interaction may cause the new magmatic complexes to be diagonally aligned. By expanding the study area form only the CVL to other large scale magmatic provinces on the African continental plate, Ngako et al. (2006) tries to illustrate a complex interaction between hotspots and Precambrian faults. The aim is to provide alternative explanations to classical hotspot models. Ngako et al. (2006) used three provinces, namely the Niger- Nigeria super province (Plaeozoic to Mesozoic era), the Benue Trough (Cretaceous period) and the Cameroon Volcanic Line (Cenozoic era to present) to prove a time-space migration of the West-Central African alkaline magmatism. The ages of rocks sampled, decrease from the northern Niger- Nigeria province southwards through the Be nue Trough to the CVL. The decreasing age of the plutonic provinces may suggest an interaction between tectonics and a hotspot system. Ngako et al. (2006) noted that the crustal and elastic thickness of the lithosphere on the continental sector of the CVL is unusually thin. This lithospheric thinning is argued as a position of a hotspot. Nkouathio et al. (2008) suggested that the evolution of the CVL magmas could be explained by the pattern of tectonic stresses and volcanic structures. In contradiction, Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) suggested that the Y-shape of the CVL was unaffected by plate motions and therefore implies that the magma source is attached to the continent. Geophysical surveys performed on the crust of the CVL concluded that differentiation between the Pan-African belts and neither the structural features nor the thickness of the crust is possible (Milelli, Fourel Jaupart, 2012). The crust underneath the CVL is very thin (ca. 35-39km) and the failure to distinguish between the Pan-African belts and the CVL indicates that the long period of magmatism (for approximately 70 Myr) on the CVL, has not have significant effects on the crust in the CVL region (Tokam et al. 2010). The absence of a seismic velocity anomaly at depths greater than ~300km, confirm the presence of the uniform mantle transition zone (Reusch et al. 2010)(Milelli, Fourel Jaupart, 2012). Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) explored the buoyancy of the lithospheric origin, because the lithosphere is made up of depleted mantle material, relative to the asthenosphere as a basis for their experiment on lithospheric instabilities. Since the lithosphere is buoyant on the asthe nosphere, the system is in equilibrium. However, if the lithosphere would experience cooling from the top, a convective instability might be triggered (Milelli, Fourel Jaupart, 2012). The latest trend is that researchers consider the CVL as a hot line tapping its resources from a sub-lithospheric mantle through openings in the lithosphere (Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno Demaiffe, 2007). Crustal uplift in both continental and oceanic areas proposed by Meyers et al. (1998) contributes to the theory of lithospheric instability proved by Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) via laboratory experiments. Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) studied the lithospheric instability due to cooling from the crust downwards. The lithospheric instability is speculated to occur within the sub-continental lithospheric mantle. The laboratory experiments performed by Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) were based on the principle that materials with a viscosity that is independent of temperature will react the same when cooling from either the top or the bottom was induced. A ‘continents’ were created by using different viscosity fluids and fixing certain variables. These experiment s, that’s been fully described and discussed by Milelli, focussed on the instabilities created at the continental margin. Milelli, Fourel and Jaupart (2012) documented that the buoyancy factor causes downwellings that eventually return to the surface. This cycle of downwellings and upwellings creates a stress regime where compressional stresses were identified at the downwellings and corresponding extentional stresses, creating rifting fractures, at the upwellings. Fracture patterns on the surface of the experimental ‘continent’ formed in a combination of hexagons and distorted squares (Milelli, Fourel Jaupart, 2012). The conclusion of these experiments serve as proof that that continental lithospheric cooling can result in the geometrical Y-shape of the CVL, independent of the size and shape of the continental mass. Further proof is presented by Dà ©ruelle, Ngounouno and Demaiffe (2007) with supporting data on seismic and gravimetric surveys of the oceanic sec tion of the CVL.

New High-speed Connections Will Change How We Work And Play :: essays research papers

New High-Speed Connections Will Change How We Work and Play Online   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Society is becoming ever more dependent on being electronically connected with every other part of the world. Worldwide communication and commerce are just two areas where people benefit from living in an information age. Using the Internet, business can be conducted from anywhere in the world, and you can even talk to get to know other people, anywhere in the world. These online activities became possible only very recently. Applications, that utilize the Internet, are being developed every day. However, because of the nature in which most of us are connected to the Internet, there are limitations to what we can do online. Nearly everyone connects to the Internet using an analog modem. To get online, we boot up our PC’s, and using our telephone line, dial in to our Internet Service Provider. Because telephone technology is much older than the Internet, there have been limitations to how fast data can travel over existing copper telephone lines. Using an analog modem, data is translated from its digital form to an analog signal, to travel over the telephone lines. Once it gets to its destination, the data is converted back into its digital form. Line noise is a result of data being transmitted as an analog signal. The FCC imposed limitations, decades ago, to minimize the amount of line noise that was allowed. This law was imposed long before the PC ever existed. However, it directly affects how fast we can access the Internet today, at speeds of only 53kbps. Even that connection speed is theoretical. Depending on the quality of the telephone lines that run into your home, your connection speed may not even come close to 53kbps. Despite having ever-faster computers, we are limited to what we can do online by these relatively low connection rates. To make online activities, such as ecommerce, virtual meetings, and video conferencing, truly practical we need faster connections to the Internet. Two competing technologies may offer an answer to the bandwidth problem. Cable Modems and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) both offer the speed that consumers want. Both technologies are also potentially more user-friendly because with either you do not dial-up to get connected, you are always online. You simply plug-in to the network, like you plug-in your toaster to an electrical outlet. Using a Cable Modem, you connect to the Internet through the existing Cable-TV lines. New High-speed Connections Will Change How We Work And Play :: essays research papers New High-Speed Connections Will Change How We Work and Play Online   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Society is becoming ever more dependent on being electronically connected with every other part of the world. Worldwide communication and commerce are just two areas where people benefit from living in an information age. Using the Internet, business can be conducted from anywhere in the world, and you can even talk to get to know other people, anywhere in the world. These online activities became possible only very recently. Applications, that utilize the Internet, are being developed every day. However, because of the nature in which most of us are connected to the Internet, there are limitations to what we can do online. Nearly everyone connects to the Internet using an analog modem. To get online, we boot up our PC’s, and using our telephone line, dial in to our Internet Service Provider. Because telephone technology is much older than the Internet, there have been limitations to how fast data can travel over existing copper telephone lines. Using an analog modem, data is translated from its digital form to an analog signal, to travel over the telephone lines. Once it gets to its destination, the data is converted back into its digital form. Line noise is a result of data being transmitted as an analog signal. The FCC imposed limitations, decades ago, to minimize the amount of line noise that was allowed. This law was imposed long before the PC ever existed. However, it directly affects how fast we can access the Internet today, at speeds of only 53kbps. Even that connection speed is theoretical. Depending on the quality of the telephone lines that run into your home, your connection speed may not even come close to 53kbps. Despite having ever-faster computers, we are limited to what we can do online by these relatively low connection rates. To make online activities, such as ecommerce, virtual meetings, and video conferencing, truly practical we need faster connections to the Internet. Two competing technologies may offer an answer to the bandwidth problem. Cable Modems and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) both offer the speed that consumers want. Both technologies are also potentially more user-friendly because with either you do not dial-up to get connected, you are always online. You simply plug-in to the network, like you plug-in your toaster to an electrical outlet. Using a Cable Modem, you connect to the Internet through the existing Cable-TV lines.

New Zealand Families Today

RESEARCH PROJECT Women in later life who have chosen to remain voluntarily childfree what are the implications if any? 1. AIM The aim of the research is to explore the implications of remaining voluntarily childfree for women in later life within the New Plymouth district of New Zealand. 1. a. INTRODUCTION Within many Western industrialised societies there are notions that children provide fulfillment, give purpose and offset loneliness in later life. There are tales like the ‘Three Spinsters’ from the writers The Brothers Grimm which have contributed to the stereotypes of childless women as lonely, bitter and unfulfilled for decades. If children are necessary at preventing loneliness in older age there is concern in regards to the New Zealand population trend. The 2006 New Zealand census released reports that by 2016 one in four women will remain childless. The implications of the assumption that children are necessary for elderly wellbeing could mean that our ageing generations may be prone to loneliness. The changing demographics of our society combined with the findings that there is no research to date on voluntary childfree women in later life within New Zealand has amplified my interest in this research topic. My interest in this research proposal stems from my own position in life. I am a 35 year old Pakeha woman who has chosen to remain childfree. I have had many assumptions put forward to me in regards to my personal choice to remain voluntarily childfree. These are mainly aimed around the notion that I am destined for loneliness in later life and that I will be unfulfilled. Therefore I have made my position within this research proposal transparent as I acknowledge it is influential to my perspective when I undertake the research. Delwyn Field Page 2 The research proposal will outline the research methodology to be carried out. The research will be qualitative based on a feminist’s perspective, to provide knowledge of women issues, for women from women. The research will be guided by feminist ideology and explore the socially constructed norms of womanhood without motherhood. The data collection will be the use of storytelling which is fitting with qualitative research. The story telling process will enlighten the researcher on how the participants came to their chosen life path. This will be informative as the participants came from the eras of where motherhood and childbirth was predominately something that happened to women not chosen by women (Held, 1989, as cited in Riley, 2008). The participants for the research will be women who have chosen to remain childfree and they will be over the age of 65. The age range of 65 plus is described as late adulthood in human development lifespan theories (Berk, 2007). I have chosen this age criteria because critical social, emotional and developmental stages occur in this period of life which are broadly universal to most elderly (Berk, 2007). The research proposal will also be based on the New Plymouth district of New Zealand. The New Plymouth district consists of â€Å"New Plymouth and the towns of Waitara, Inglewood, Urenui, Okato, Bell Block, Oakura and many other smaller rural communities† (New Plymouth District Council, n. d. ). Within New Zealand there is no empirical research done on New Zealand voluntary childless women in smaller urban areas in later life, hence why the research will be conducted here. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review has minimal reference to New Zealand literature as there is a limited study on voluntary childfree persons within New Zealand. Therefore the majority of the literature relied on is sourced from Western industrialised countries. In 1997, Cameron investigated voluntary childless within New Zealand in her book Without Issue; New Zealanders who choose not to have children. The participants within Delwyn Field Page 3 the research were numerous and involved mostly the qualitative approach of telling their story (Cameron, 1997). One of the themes that was highlighted in Cameron’s (1997) study was the social perceptions of voluntary childfree persons; the assumption that they were unhappy, selfish, emotionally unstable, immature and LONELY. This assumption of lonely old women has fueled the myth that those who choose not to have children are going to be miserable in their later years (Cameron, 1997). This was a common theme uncovered in further literature. This stereotyped image of voluntary childfree as lonely and unfulfilled is still predominating in our society in the twenty first century. Riley in her 2008 Masters of Social Science in Psychology researched stereotyping of voluntary childfree couples within New Zealand. This qualitative study interviewed and held focus groups of ten couples, to delve into stereotypes, pressures and harassments of their chosen life path. One of the stereotypes that were identified was that they were â€Å"destined for loneliness in later life† (Riley, 2008, p. ii). Throughout Riley’s 2008 thesis the belief by those who have/want children is that for individuals in society, and especially women children were fundamental in providing fulfillment and companionship. Jamison, Franzini and Kaplan (1979, cited in Riley, 2008) investigation of American university students supported Riley (2008) view that there are negative implications for women in later life who were remaining childfree. The students perceived these women to be â€Å"less likely to be happy and satisfied in old age† (Jamison, Franzini & Kaplan, 1979 cited in Riley, 2008, p. 21). The participants in Riley’s (2008) research noted that there was harassment and pressure in regards to the implications and risks they were taking in remaining childfree. These were messages that in later life they would be alone, they would not have children to support or give them fulfillment this would be internalised and their wellbeing would be effected (Riley, 2008). Delwyn Field Page 4 Regret is a message that childfree persons seem to hear continually in regards to their decision (Cameron, 1997). But there is to date research that has actually provided the opposite outcome. In Jeffries and Konnett (2002) research found that 22 out of 23 participants of the Canadian voluntary childfree women did not regret their decision nor felt that their wellbeing was affected by their decision. When analyzing Zhang and Hayward’s (2001) quantitative research of Americans in the 1993 Asset and Health Dynamics Among the Oldest Old (AHEAD) to conclude the Psychological wellbeing of childless older persons stereotypes are actually unfounded. The result of their research concluded that childlessness when voluntary did not support the hypothesis that â€Å"childlessness increases loneliness and depression for divorced, widowed and never married elderly persons† (Zhang & Hayward, 2001, p. 311). Therefore children make little difference in how women fare in later life in regards to loneliness. This was again confirmed by Rempel’s (1985) research article into the childless elderly. Rempel used the 1979 Social Change in Canada’s data base to compare childless and parent elderly. The results from the research showed that statistically there were minimal disparities of what they were missing in life. The article stated there were benefits to both choices in life. When reviewing the article Rempel (1985) highlighted the ability of those who were childfree to have a parallel quality of life of those who were parents in later life. This refutes the concern that childfree elderly are isolated and lonely. What points to the parallel quality of life is that thou adult children provide support networks to elderly parents. The childfree elderly also have an established network of friends and family e. g. siblings who contribute to their support networks (Rempel, 1985). Rempel (1985) suggest this is due to childfree persons knowing that in later life children are not going to be available. So in turn they produce a life that ensures they are â€Å"capable self reliant elderly† with an established support network they nurture (Rempel, 1985, p. 347). Delwyn Field Page 5 Zhang and Hayward (2001) confirmed that the social support network was crucial in childfree elderly maintaining wellbeing. Their research linked older childless persons being integrated into close friend networks instead of the close family networks older parents had established this was on par or to a greater level at providing support (Zhang and Hayward, 2001). The research also underpinned the role of siblings, nieces and nephews played in elderly childfree lives as being important compared to that of elderly parents lives (Zhang and Hayward, 2001). Connidis and Davis (1990) qualitative survey of over 400 older person to conclude the place of family and friends in later life also states the use of differing support networks of elderly people is beneficial. In depth individual one hour interviews in America discovered that among elderly persons a diversified social network provides the best support in later life (Connidis and Davis, 1990). This is most favorable to childfree women as they tend to develop the strongest ties with friends and siblings as both companions and confidents (Connidis & Davis, 1990). This may be again due to ensuring their self reliance in later life due to no children to depend upon. One of the key findings in loneliness, social isolation and living alone in later life was the size of the individual’s social network in offsetting negative effects of loneliness (Victor, Bowling, Bond & Scambler, n. d). Though a large amount of this literature review has shown loneliness is not the destiny of elderly childfree persons, it unfortunately has not included New Zealand childfree women. Therefore when analyzing Riley’s (2008) childfree participants in her New Zealand study was there any key theme that was established in regards to social networks and loneliness pertaining to the participants? All participants raised the concern of their status ‘childfree’ as making them more socially excluded. The difficulty of remaining friends with people when they became parents was expressed due to the â€Å"nature of the relationship† would change (Riley, 2008, p. 57). Maintaining friendships with parents was an issue and affected social networks. Cameron (1997) also discovered this in her Delwyn Field Page 6 study that childfree people believe that if they were parents they would have access to larger social networks (Cameron, 1997). This is because parents have more in common with other parent’s children provide a connection that is not available to childfree (Riley, 2008). Although to date no data could be found within the literature research to confirm that parenting is a guarantee to social inclusion. Unfortunately no participants were elderly to conclude loneliness in later life. More research needs to be conducted in regards to New Zealand Childfree persons to conclude social network supports and loneliness in elderly here. An article released by New Zealand Statistics in 2008 concluded that if trends continue one in four elderly women in New Zealand will be childless. New Zealand statistics also stated that childless is more common among women living in main urban areas (Boddington & Didham, 2008). Boddington and Didham (2008) who collated this information from the 2006 census state this is due to the larger social networks available in main urban areas. So will women who remain voluntary childfree and reside in smaller urban areas, be subjected to more negative impacts from their decision due to more smaller social networks? 3. METHOD The research proposed is from a qualitative approach using storytelling as a means of data collection. This method is applied because of the argument presented in favor of qualitative research that it â€Å"†¦views the social world as a complex, dynamic reality†¦ of multiple layers of meaning†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Connolly, 2002, p. 27). Therefore qualitative data enables a more comprehensive insight into the complexity of people. Qualitative research also supports feminist principles of where women are collaborative and equal in the research (Smith & Noble-Spreull, 1986). Where-as if a quantitative method was applied in this research, it would focus on controlled data where the researcher has a hierarchical relationship with the researched, thus not equal and consistent with feminist values. Also through telling their stories women are given a voice to speak out within the public arena Delwyn Field Page 7 on pronatalism attitudes (promoting childbearing) which have been linked with patriarchal values and subordination of women (Riley, 2008). In turn this research will empower women to explore the complexity of childfree women which is important for feminism. Hence the qualitative approach when researching women who choose to remain voluntary childfree embraces the feminist perspective and enables us to seek understanding and information from the participant’s point of view (Bryman, 2001). 3. 1 DATA COLLECTION The data collection for the research is through one on one interview through storytelling. Davidson & Tolich state â€Å"storytelling aims to explore an individual’s identity†¦through personal accounts† (Alice, 2003, p. 6). It is a method that reveals rich data because when individuals talk of their understanding of events they may retell it giving greater insight to the complexity of their experiences and themselves (Webster & Mertova, 2007). This would be favorable in this research because the participants may have quite unique and complex accounts of their chosen life path where their po int of view is vital for data collection. Feminists also believe that storytelling is unique at capturing the â€Å"diversity of experiences between women† (Alice, 2003, p. 67). The interviews will be conducted within the participants home, at times which are most convenient for them. There is no structured time set due to the nature of the data collection method, but the research is based on one or two in depth interviews. The life stories will provide the interview format, my role as the researcher will be to provide prompts to encourage the flow of the interview process. Being an insider within the research proposal, and having my position transparent through contributing and sharing in the interview, will enhance the process of sharing stories. Through the storytelling collection method the research will seek to cover several aspects of the participant’s life story. These will be consistent with revealing data that will help to conclude what it is like to be voluntary childfree in later life. See appendix one for subject matter the interviews will be seeking to cover from each participant. If a more formal structured Delwyn Field Page 8 interview was to take place assumptions about the participant may taint their viewpoint and limit the data collected (Bryman 2001). The interviews will be recorded by audiotape, once consent is gained from the participants (Appendix two). This will enable me, the interviewer, to remain focused on the participants and enable the flow of the interview. Note taking will not be included as it may distort respondent’s answers and may be interruptive in the flow of the interview (Bryman 2001). The audiotapes will be transcribed by the interviewer and transferred to a hard copy. The participants will be invited to be supplied with a full copy of the audio interview and hard copy. This will in turn encourage reciprocity i. e. equal bi directional relationships within the research process, which is in line with feminism ideology (Smith & Noble-Spreull, 1986). It will also allow for the participants to confirm and have the opportunity to comment and make changes to their stories. This empowers the participant and encourages an egalitarian relationship which is congruent with qualitative research (Smith & Noble Spreull, 1986). The data through out the research project will be kept in a locked filing cabinet within my home in Taranaki. All information that is stored on computer will be contained in a secure file. At the end of the research project all data will be destroyed that is held on the computer, and within the filing cabinet. The participant’s audio tapes and hard copy transcripts will be returned to them or destroyed at the end of the research depending on their personal preference. The qualitative research will be analysed using coding where data retrieved from the story telling is broken down to key findings using the themes from the interview guide and other categories (appendix one). The other categories may be quite broad due to the in-depth nature of the data collection, thus sub categories may evolve through the data analysis (Bryman, 2001). The use of coding within the research enables the researcher to review transcripts and decipher significant common themes of the participants interviews Delwyn Field Page 9 (Bryman, 2001). The coding process will categorize the participant’s life stories showing common patterns in the social world of those who remain voluntary childfree and allow for analysis of the data (Bryman, 2001). Within the data collection coding should be done as soon as possible to â€Å"†¦sharpen your understanding of the data†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and help with providing other emerging patterns (Bryman, 2001, p. 398). These patterns above the interview themes will contribute to the findings and the development of a theory to conclude the implications of remaining voluntarily childfree in later life. Once the coding is complete the data can be statistically analysed. 3. 2 SAMPLE GROUP/ PARTICIPANTS The sample group will consist of seven voluntary participants. The criteria for the sample group will be female, aged 65 years plus, voluntary childfree, living independent within the New Plymouth district community and have no cognitive impairment e. g. Alzheimer’s and dementia. The participants will be recruited through volunteer means. An advertisement will be placed within the local New Plymouth Midweek paper, over a period of two months recruiting volunteer participants (appendix four). The advertisement will also target local agency Age Concern to advertise in their newsletter magazine (Appendix four). Recruitment will also depend on invitations been extended through snowballing where the researcher depends on the social network groups of childfree women to enable invitation. Bryman (2001) describes snowballing as the opportunity to use a small group to recruit other participants who are relevant for the research. This method of recruitment is chosen because there is no data base to seek women who have chosen to remain voluntary childfree available in New Zealand. The researcher will select the first seven participants who meet the chosen criteria. The number of participants allows the researcher to acquire a large enough sample base for data to be consequential in providing an analysis of voluntary childfree women. The Delwyn Field Page 10 group number is also conducive in enabling the type of data collection method to be effectively conducted. This is due the in depth nature of story telling collection methods in conjunction with the time restraints of the research proposal. The selected seven participants will be sent a letter introducing the researcher stating what is required as participants (appendix three), and a consent form (appendix two). The consent form will tell the participants of their rights, where the information will be used and ensure them that they can withdraw from the research at any time (appendix two). 4. ETHICAL ISSUES Through my study as a social work student I will be guided by the Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Social Workers (ANZASW) Code of Ethics (2008) ethical responsibilities in research. The research carried out will be in line with social work practice and be sensitive to the â€Å"†¦wellbeing and dignity of participants† by integrating the following into the research proposed (ANZASW, 2008, p. 4). Before undertaking any recruitment the research proposed will be taken to the Western Institute of Technology (WITT) Ethics Committee to seek guidance and advice in regards to what research ethics committee I may need to gain approval from. This will ensure that the research meets the appropriate standards of being ethically sound. Within the voluntary recruitment process no partici pants will be â€Å"†¦obtained by coercion nor by force†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and at all times through out the research the participants have the right to withdraw without explanation to the researcher (Wilkinson, 2001, p. 6). The introduction letter (Appendix three) will be to ensure that participants are fully informed of all relevant information in regards to the nature, purpose and process of the research that is to be carried out. This information will be fully disclosed whether the participant has asked for it or not and will ensure that the participant gains full knowledge of what they are getting into (Wilkinson, 2001). This will all be disclosed before obtaining written consent (Appendix two) from the participants so that no deception occurs. Delwyn Field Page 11 All data collection methods will be conducted in a manner that upholds the principles of Te Tiriti O Waitangi; partnership, participation and protection. The research will be conducted so that self determination is sustained. This will be through participants obtaining a full copy of the audio interview and written copy of the transcript for clarification. This will also provide the opportunity for them to change and omit any information that they do not wish to be disclosed. Confidentiality will be upheld, names of participants will be deleted. Participants will be informed though that some information given may enable them to be identified due to the size of the demographic area; so complete confidentiality can not be fully guaranteed. All information obtained will be destroyed on completion of the research project, with the option that participants may have information returned to them if they wish. The concern for harm within the research would be that the research topic may generate negative memories and emotions for the participants. Under the clause 8. 1 of the ANZASW Code of Ethics (2008) the researcher must â€Å"†¦take all possible steps to protect participants†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , if distress does occur a referral to a counselor will be provided (ANZASW, 2008, p. 14). This service will be available during and up to the completion of the research. Potential problems that may occur in trying to carry out the research may be the perception that I the researcher are too young, thus discrediting my ability causing the participants to not talk to me. Also the ability to gain participants who wish to share their stories of their chosen life path of voluntarily remaining childfree may be considered too personal to share. If not enough participants are found the sample may not be large enough to give a significant and fair analysis of the implications of remaining childfree in later life within the New Plymouth district. Delwyn Field Page 12 At all times I will seek supervision due to my own personal position within the research topic. This will be to ensure information obtained from the research will not spark off any negative mental discomfort in my own personal life. . CONCLUSION This research proposal is an opportunity for women to tell their stories and enlighten society that womanhood in later life is not just valued on motherhood, thus disputing pronaltist ideology (Riley, 2008). These stories will hopefully support existing literature and remove assumptions, allowing voluntarily childfree women to be more valued in our socie ty and not stereotyped for later life implications. One of the greatest benefits of this research is that undertaking research on women in later life who are voluntary childfree may assist future elderly generations. This is through providing rich data from their life stories which may conclude coping techniques to ensure well being an offset loneliness in later life. With using a feminist perspective in the qualitative research methodology the research will work for women and give a voice to empower them in their choices. The weakness of the research is that there is no quantitative data for triangulation which may have provided the research with more validity and reliability. Future studies within New Zealand will be beneficial due to the limitations of this proposed research. Delwyn Field Page 13 6. Bibliography Alice, L. (2003). Power, experience, and process in femininst research. In C. Davidson & M. Tolich (Eds. ). Social Science Research In New Zealand: Many Paths to Understanding. (2nd ed. ). (pp 62- 68), Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand Ltd. Alzheimer’s Society (2007, February). The relationship between Alzheimer’s disease and loneliness. Alzheimer’s Research News. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://alzheimers. org. uk/site/script/news_article Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Social Workers (Inc). (2008). Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Social Workers: Code of Ethics. (2nd revision). New Zealand: Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Social Workers (Inc). Ashcroft, C. DR (2009, April). Ageing in New Plymouth Planning for Tomorrow. New Zealand: Ministry of Social Development, New Zealand Government. Berk, L. (2007). Development Through the Lifespan (4th ed. ). United States of America: Person Education; Allyn and Bacon. Boddington, B. , & Didham, R. (2008). Busy making other plans: Increases in childlessness in New Zealand. Statistics New Zealand; Demographic Trends. Retrieved May 28, 2009 from http://www. population. govt. nz/NR/rdonlyres Bryman, A. (2001). Social Research Methods. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press Cameron, J. (1997). Without Issue: New Zealanders who choose not to have children. Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press. Cahill, T. (2003, October). You Assumed Wrong. Macleans. 116 (40) 52. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb Connolly, M. (2002, Spring). Routes of Knowledge Toward Informed Practice: Differing Paradigms in Social Work Research. Social Work Review, 14 (3) 27-29 Connidis, I. A. , & Davies, L. (1990). Confidents and Companions in Later Life: The Place of Family and Friends. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences. 5 (4) S141-149. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://socialsciences. gerontologyjournals. org/cgi/content/full//45/4/S141 Delwyn Field Page 14 Davey, B. (1999). Sketch of a Theory of loneliness. Perspective: Mental Help. net. 4 (4) 1-3. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://www. mentalhelp. net/poc_doc. php. Dyson, S. (1993). The Option of Parenthood. Great Britain: Sheldon Press, Lond on Jeffries, S. , & Konnert, C. (2002). Regret and Psychological well being among voluntary and involuntarily childless women and mothers. International Journal of Ageing and Human Development, 54, 89-106. Retrieved May 29, 2009 from http://jfi. sagepub. com/cgi/reprint/30/5/670 New Plymouth District Council, (n. d. ). Living in New Plymouth: About New Plymouth. Retrieved June 16, 2009 fromhttp://www. newplymouthnz. com/livingNewPlymouth/AboutNewPlymouth/ Pitt, L. (1989). Patriarchs, Paddocks And The Personal: Five Women From The Wharehuia/ Te Popo District Talk About Their Lives. Unpublished Masters of Social Work Thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North. Pittaway, K. (2001, November). Your Kids, Your Problem. Chatelaine. 74 (11) 44. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://proquest. umi. om/pqdweb Rempel, J. (1985, May). Childless Elderly: What are they Missing? Journal of Marriage and the Family. 47 (2) 343-348. Retrieved May 26, 2009 from http://www. jstor. org/stable/352134 Riley, T. M. (2008). Childfree couples experiences of stereotyping, harassment, and Pressure. Unpublished thesis of Masters of Social Science in Psychology, The University of Waikato, Hamilton. Rowland, R. (1982, M arch). An Exploratory Study of the Childfree Lifestyle1. Journal of Sociology. 18 (1) 17-30. Retrieved May 25, 2009 from http://jos. sagepub. com At Massey University Library. Smith, B. Noble-Spreull, C. (1986). An Overview of Feminist Research Perspectives in H. Marchant, & B. Wearing. (Eds. ) Gender Reclaimed: Women In Social Work. Sydney: Hall & Iremonger. Victor, C. , Bowling, A. , Bond, J. , & Scambler, S. , (n. d) Loneliness, Social Isolation and Living Alone in Later Life. ESRC Society Today. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://www. esrcsocietytoday. ac. uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Plain_English Wane, J. (2008, May). Only the Lonely. North and South Magazine. 68-75 Delwyn Field Page 15 Webster, L. , & Mertova, P. (2007). Using Narrative Inquiry as a Research Method: An Introduction to Using Critical Event Narrative Analysis in Research on Learning And Teaching. USA: Routledge Wilkinson, T. (2001). The Core Ideas in Research Ethics in M. Tolich (Ed. ). Research Ethics in Aotearoa New Zealand: Concepts, practice, Critique. (pp. 13-24). Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand. Zhang, Z. , & Hayward, M. (2001). Childlessness and the Psychological Well-Being of Older Persons. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 56:S311-S320. Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://psychsoc. gerontologyjournals. org/cgi/content/full/56/5/S311

Dairy: Milk and Clover Essay

Clover S. A. (Proprietary) Limited (â€Å"Clover†) is the biggest dairy processor in South Africa with a turnover of R 4. 3 billion and staff in excess of 6 000. Clover collects approximately 30% of South Africa’s milk supply and processes it into well known branded dairy and related products which is then distributed nationally and even exported into certain African countries. In this document, Clover’s external opportunities and threats, and its internal strengths and weaknesses will be evaluated in order to complete the relevant matrices, whereafter the Grand Strategy Matrix will be used to devise appropriate strategies to deal with the key opportunities, threats, strengths and weaknesses Mission and Vision Statements: Clover’s mission (which answers the question â€Å"What is Clover’s business?†) is as follows: â€Å"Clover is a branded foods and beverages group with a strong emphasis on value-added products. Clover’s South African dairy business is the perfect enabler to reach the Group’s widely dispersed customers and consumers. Extraordinary care is taken to develop brands which will occupy the number one or two positions in its chosen segments. It believes in the superior procurement, production, marketing, sales and distribution of these branded consumer goods (BCG) to its loyal consumers. † A review of the mission statement shows that most of the â€Å"9 C’s† (i. e. Customers, Products, Markets, Technology, Concern for survival, Growth and Profitability, Philosophy, Self Concept, Concern for Public Image and Concern for Employees) have been utilised in a short statement. It is suggested that the following of the â€Å"absent† â€Å"9 C’s† be included or elaborated upon in the mission statement Concern for employees; Philosophy. Its vision (which answers the question â€Å"What do we want to become?†) is as follows: â€Å"To be a leading and competitive company in South Africa and selected African countries, reaching every consumer on a daily basis with its most admired branded and trusted products, delivering improved and sustainable shareholder value by being a responsible corporate citizen and preferred employer. † A review of the vision statement shows stronger and more reliance by Clover on its brand than on its products. However, Clover’s vision is most certainly achievable, and in certain aspects one may argue that the vision statement might be outdated. THE EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT Introduction: Broadly, the purpose of an external assessment is to a company’s (in this case Clover’s) opportunities which could benefit it on the one hand, and on the other, threats that should be avoided. Generally, these external â€Å"forces† can be divided into the following categories: Economic forces; Social, cultural, demographic and environmental forces; Political, governmental and legal forces; Technological forces; and Competitive forces. Each of these categories will be discussed briefly, as well as the opportunities and threats will be listed under each heading. Economic Forces: The current and ongoing recession had a negative impact on the company’s interim financial results for the 6 months ending December 2008. More particularly and in the words of Clover’s Chief Executive, Mr JH Vorster, â€Å"a recent international publication on dairy matters stated that the industry faces a perfect storm of destructive economic forces and South Africa and Clover could not escape these forces†. The high unemployment numbers (which increases by the day) have an impact on disposable income, which in turn has an impact on buying behaviour, especially towards branded products (which Clover prides itself on), which as a very general rule carries a price margin. This, however, will continue to pose a problem, and as such, Clover must continue to ride the wave of brand recognition to endeavour to brace itself against the prevailing negative economic forces, which is seen as a huge threat. A further threat is the high number of farmers leaving the trade due to what they generally term â€Å"unaffordability†. Social, Cultural, Demographic and Environmental Forces: Clover believes in personal social uplift, thereby not only donating money in general, but being directly involved in the upliftment. Its flagship upliftment programme, Mama Afrika, currently supports in excess of 10 000 people. Appropriately, Clover views this project along the following lines: â€Å"Clover’s flagship CSI philosophy is underpinned by the principle of sustainability; instead of giving people handouts, it is investing in projects that empower communities and enhance their ability to become self-sufficient in the long term. â€Å"We teach the Mamas how to fish rather than give them the fish. †Ã¢â‚¬  According to Clover, it believes that: â€Å"The company is inextricably part of the community and will therefore, in terms of support and development, accept its social responsibility; Profitability and growth are pre-requisites to fulfill its social responsibility within financial means; The community, primarily has to accept responsibility for its own well-being and will only within means, be supported in this; It creates wealth through company taxes, employee taxes and levies which enable government to establish and maintain essential infrastructure like roads, education and health services; Opportunities for work and prosperity are not only created within the business, but that it, indirectly, contributes to job creation and combating poverty. † It furthermore enforces strict environmental disposal techniques in order to protect the environment. It is therefore that Clover views the Social, Cultural and Demographic Forces as an exciting opportunity. The general deterioration of the environment is naturally a concern for Clover, as some of its biggest assets (i. e. cows) rely on a safe environment. This may therefore be seen as a (general) threat. Political, Governmental and Legal Forces: General: First and foremost, Clover must ensure that the relevant agreements are in place with its retailers, service providers and suppliers. These agreements must also be regularly updated. Legislation: The following legislation will be applicable to Clover (or at least cognisance should be taken of these Acts at all times): The Companies’ Act, 69 of 1973; The Companies’ Act, 71 of 2008 (which will come into operation during 2010); The Consumer Protection Act, 68 of 2008, which provides for, inter alia, promoting a fair, accessible and sustainable marketplace for consumer products; Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2 of 2000, which provides for access to information by individuals and/or entities. Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act, 53 of 2003, which provides for, inter alia, increased broad-based and effective participation of black people in the economy; The Competition Act, 89 of 1998, which provides for, inter alia, the investigation, control and evaluation of certain restrictive practices (the amendments passed during 2010 holds grave consequences in for those who do not adhere to the provisions of the Act). It might well be that a company’s knowledge of particular Acts as mentioned above will be an opportunity. Similarly, a company’s ignorance will be a threat to the company. Clover is an established company, has a legal department and therefore its knowledge of the current law and legislation are adequate. Technological Forces: Clover’s relationship with its customers and clients are entirely computer based (â€Å"IT based†). It is therefore of paramount importance that all its IT be updated regularly (and adequately). Although it has an IT department, Clover does not have a manager close enough to the Executive Committee (such as legal and/or Human Resources). This is seen as a weakness. Competitive Forces: As mentioned in the general introduction in 1. 1 above, Clover collects approximately 30% of South Africa’s milk, leaving 70% which is collected by between 200 to 350 other dairies in South Africa. Of these, Parmalat (Pty) Ltd, Woodlands Dairy (Pty) Ltd, Nestle Dairy (Pty) Ltd, Milkwood (Pty) Ltd and Dairybelle (Pty) Ltd are the biggest competitors. It does however depend on the type of products (for instance, Parmalat is the biggest processor of UHT (Ultra High temperature) milk in South Africa) and geographically (for instance, Parmalat is the biggest distributor of milk in the Western Cape). However, the mentioned companies are competitors and competitors are generally a threat. Clover relies on its brand and extensive distribution network to gain the competitive advantage. Some of the smaller competitors are more than likely to fail due to the current economic recession, thereby giving Clover the opportunities in respect of possible acquisitions of growing market share. A further threat is the (sometimes) ease with which competitors may be successful in convincing farmers to change one processor to another. THE EXTERNAL FACTOR EVALUATION (â€Å"EFE†) MATRIX FOR CLOVER: Key External FactorsWeightRatingWeighted Score Opportunities 1. Recession may cause increase in market share0. 0820. 16 2. Social upliftment programme is extremely successful0. 0540. 20 3. Knowledge of applicable legislation and law0. 1030. 3 4. Possible acquisitions of competitors0. 0810. 08 5. Clover has branded products0. 1130. 33 Threats 6. Economic Recession is a great concern0. 2020. 40 7. Farmers leaving the trade0. 0820. 16 8. Agreements not updated regularly enough0. 0540. 20 9. New and amended legislation places enormous pressure on companies0. 0530. 15 10. Continual Environment Deterioration is of concern0. 0340. 12 11. IT department not close enough to management0. 0320. 06 12. Competitors are generally a threat0. 0730. 21 13. Farmers are convinced to leave Clover for its competitors0. 0720. 14 Total1. 002. 51 CONCLUSION: Clover scores an average of 2. 51 out of a possible 4. There is therefore ample room for improvement. THE INTERNAL ASSESSMENT: Introduction: Broadly, the purpose of an internal assessment is to identify and list a company’s internal strengths and weaknesses. Generally, these internal forces by Clover can be divided into the following categories: Management Forces; Marketing Forces; Finance / Accounting Forces; Production / Operations Forces; Research and Development Forces; and Management Information Systems Forces. As with the External Assessment, each of these categories will be cryptically analysed and the strengths and weaknesses will be listed under each heading. Management: Management of Clover has 5 basic activities, namely: Planning; Organising; Motivating; Staffing; and Controlling. Management may be seen as actively planning in order to take the company forward in line with its vision. However, the motivational activity may have taken a turn for the worst, as Clover closed down one of its factories, and is in the process of restructuring and retrenchment. It is therefore submitted that management motivation is, at the moment, a weakness. Apart from the above, the activities of management are attended to adequately and the employees are always encouraged to participate and voice concerns, even directly with management. Marketing: There are 7 basic functions of marketing, namely: Customer analysis; Selling products/services; Product and service planning; Pricing; Distribution; Marketing research; and Opportunity analysis. Clover is well positioned in the market and is a very strong branded company. That being said, its market share has remained stagnant for the past year or two. Clover’s marketing team is very strong, and focuses on the â€Å"new† products, rather than milk. The main product of Clover is thus difficult to market. The view at this stage, is that Clover’s prices of its products are sometimes too high, but the fact remains that Clover is marketing an extremely strong and well known brand. Finance / Accounting : Strengths: Can identify early on future shortfalls in the company and react. Had a positive net profit over last 6 year period. Operating profit was 22. 6% higher than 2007. Property, plant and equipment increased from 2007. Goodwill increased as a result of acquisition of 70% of Mayo Dairy by Clover’s joint venture Danone Clover. Weaknesses: There was a 22. 8% increase internally on operating expenses in 2008 and no mention of plans to combat same. Company suffered tax loss. Interest bearing debt increased. Cash utilisation increased by 26% from 2007. Production / Operations: Clover’s main product (milk) is extremely perishable and as such, Clover succeeds in putting milk, in whatever form, in its packaging within 48 hours after collection thereof from the farmers. This is quite impressive bearing in mind that whilst most of its milk is collected at the coast (KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Caper) most are processed in the Highveld. It is a concern that most of its factories are not close to its source, but Clover is addressing this at the moment. Its quality control is well maintained, and according to Clover, each litre of milk undergoes 55 quality checks before leaving the factory. Research and Development (â€Å"R & D†): Clover survives on â€Å"older† products, but its R & D department is always busy exploring newer and innovative products. It is however difficult to do with a product such as milk. One of its most innovative products in recent years were no fat milk and vanilla milk. Management Information Systems (â€Å"MIS†): It might be argued that Clover’s MIS is not up to scratch. It relies on data from the trade and field. There is no information officer in the company. Information is collected as and when requested and/or needed. INTERNAL FACTOR EVALUATION (â€Å"IFE†) MATRIX FOR CLOVER: Key Internal FactorsWeightRatingWeighted Score Strengths 1. Management’s Planning, organising staff and controlling is good0. 1040. 40 2. Brand is very strong and thus marketing is fairly easy and successful0. 2040. 80 3. Strong marketing team0. 0530. 15 4. Turnover increases year on year for the past 6 years0. 0930. 27 5. Production and operation very strong0. 1140. 44 Weaknesses 6. Management motivation low due to impending restructuring0. 7010. 2 7. Operating expenses rose by 22. 8%0. 0620. 12 8. High turnover but low profit margin (between 7% and 8%)0. 0510. 05 9. Factories too far away from source, thereby increasing production costs0. 0810. 08 10. Product may be seen as old and stagnant, thereby inhibiting R & D0. 0220. 04 11. MIS not adequate0. 0410. 04 Total1. 000. 002. 59 IFE CONCLUSION: Clover score of 2. 59 is above average, therefore indicating average to slightly strong internal position. There is therefore ample room for improvement, but it is not weak internally, which is positive. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT). SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and its environment. It is the first stage of planning and helps marketers to focus on key issues. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors. Opportunities and threats are external factors. Strategies to adopt in improving Clovers mission statement Human resources Applies to all actors along the chain from producers to consumers. Producers: continuing education on breeding, feeding, animal health, the role of institutions and groups. Milk collectors and handlers: training in clean milk processes; payment systems. Milk procurement: organization logistics; environmental issues and concerns; aim is to keep cost as low as possible. Knowledge management Marketing: consumer education and awareness (e. g. school trips to dairies); educate the media so they can help promote milk campaigns; educate health professionals so they know about the benefits. Competitiveness Producing high quality milk at lowest cost; quality is linked to other elements; government can provide loans, artificial insemination, knowledge (training programs); Productivity. Private sector can provide knowledge, consultants, equipment; research and development on new products and technology; nutrition; management (keeping costs low, quality high) Value addition There is a phenomenal scope for innovations in product development, packaging and presentation. Steps should be taken to introduce value-added products like ice creams, flavored milk, dairy sweets, etc. This will lead to a greater presence and flexibility in the market place along with opportunities in the field of brand building. Addition of cultured products like yoghurt and cheese lend further strength – both in terms of utilization of resources and presence in the market place. Export potential Efforts to exploit export potential are already on. Clover should export to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Middle East. Following the new GATT treaty, opportunities will increase tremendously for the export of agri-products in general and dairy products in particular. Cooperatives Greater awareness of farmers’ needs Clover should not think that they are the only custodians or ‘voice’ of Farmers or the only ones protecting the interests of Farmers. Clover should be open enough to understand and think ‘out of the box’ and to understand and see what ways and means can help farmers stay loyal and be more productive. Competition With so many newcomers entering this industry, competition is becoming tougher day by day. But then competition has to be faced as a ground reality. It is large enough for many to carve out their niche. Problematic distribution All is not well with distribution. But then if ice creams can be sold virtually at every nook and corner, why can’t Clover sell other dairy products too? Moreover, it is only a matter of time before we see the emergence of a cold chain linking the producer to the refrigerator at the consumer’s home Perishability Pasteurization has overcome this weakness partially. UHT gives milk long life. Surely, many new processes will follow to improve milk quality and extend its shelf life. Clover needs to overhaul its R & D department.